Before the New Order era in Indonesia, the political landscape was a dynamic and complex arena, marked by a vibrant multi-party system, ideological clashes, and a series of pivotal events that shaped the nation's trajectory. Understanding this period is crucial for grasping the subsequent political developments under the New Order and the reforms that followed. Let's dive into the intricate political constellations that characterized pre-New Order Indonesia.

The Dawn of Independence and the Multi-Party System

The immediate aftermath of Indonesia's independence in 1945 saw the emergence of a multi-party system. This was a stark contrast to the centralized control that would later define the New Order. Various political parties, each with its own ideology and agenda, vied for influence. Key players included the Indonesian National Party (PNI), representing nationalist sentiments; Masyumi, a major Islamic party; the Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), another influential Islamic organization that later became a political party; and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), which advocated for a socialist agenda. This diversity was both a strength and a weakness. On one hand, it allowed for broad representation and public participation. On the other hand, it led to political fragmentation and instability.

The PNI, under the leadership of Sukarno, initially held significant sway due to Sukarno's charisma and his role in the independence movement. However, the party faced challenges from other groups, each seeking to assert their influence in the new nation. Masyumi, with its strong base among Islamic scholars and communities, presented a formidable challenge, advocating for an Islamic state. The NU, while initially part of Masyumi, later formed its own political party to better represent its specific interests. The PKI, meanwhile, gained traction among workers and peasants, promoting a radical agenda of social and economic reform. The interplay between these parties created a volatile political environment, marked by frequent changes in government and shifting alliances. This period underscored the challenges of building a stable democracy in a newly independent nation with diverse ideologies and interests.

Moreover, the socio-political landscape was further complicated by regional disparities and ethnic tensions. Different regions of Indonesia had varying levels of development and distinct cultural identities, which often translated into differing political priorities. This regionalism added another layer of complexity to the already fragmented political scene. The central government struggled to maintain unity and address the diverse needs of the archipelago, leading to discontent and occasional uprisings in various parts of the country. This intricate web of political parties, ideologies, and regional dynamics set the stage for the turbulent years that followed, ultimately paving the way for the rise of the New Order regime.

Guided Democracy: Sukarno's Experiment

In the late 1950s, amidst growing political instability, President Sukarno introduced the concept of Guided Democracy (Demokrasi Terpimpin). Sukarno argued that the existing liberal democratic system was unsuitable for Indonesia and that a more centralized, guided approach was necessary to maintain national unity and stability. This marked a significant shift away from the multi-party system that had characterized the early years of independence. Under Guided Democracy, Sukarno consolidated power, sidelining political parties and increasingly relying on the military and other state institutions to govern.

Sukarno's Guided Democracy sought to incorporate elements of nationalism, religion, and communism – known as Nasakom – into a unified national ideology. This was an attempt to bridge the ideological divides that had plagued Indonesian politics, but it also served to suppress dissent and consolidate Sukarno's authority. Political parties were still allowed to exist, but their activities were heavily regulated and their influence diminished. The People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS), the highest legislative body, was packed with Sukarno's supporters, ensuring that his policies were rubber-stamped. Freedom of the press and expression were curtailed, and political opponents were often silenced or imprisoned. While Sukarno maintained a strong base of support, particularly among nationalists and some segments of the population who admired his charisma and revolutionary credentials, Guided Democracy also faced significant opposition.

Critics argued that it was authoritarian and undemocratic, concentrating too much power in the hands of the president and suppressing fundamental freedoms. The military, under figures like General Abdul Haris Nasution, played an increasingly prominent role in politics, further eroding civilian control. The PKI, despite being ostensibly part of the Nasakom framework, also faced suspicion and hostility from the military and other anti-communist elements within the government. The economy deteriorated under Guided Democracy, with rising inflation and widespread corruption. Sukarno's focus on grandiose projects and revolutionary rhetoric often came at the expense of practical economic policies, leading to growing discontent among the population. The combination of political repression, economic mismanagement, and ideological tensions created a highly unstable environment that ultimately culminated in the events of 1965.

The Rise of the PKI and Growing Tensions

The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) experienced significant growth during the Guided Democracy period. Supported by Sukarno's policy of Nasakom, the PKI became one of the largest communist parties in the world outside of the Soviet Union and China. This rapid expansion, however, alarmed other political and social forces, particularly the military and Islamic groups. The PKI's growing influence in the government and its increasing assertiveness in social and economic affairs led to heightened tensions and polarization within Indonesian society.

The PKI advocated for land reform, nationalization of key industries, and a more egalitarian distribution of wealth. These policies resonated with many peasants and workers who felt marginalized by the existing economic system. However, they also threatened the interests of landlords, business owners, and other elites, who viewed the PKI as a dangerous force seeking to undermine the established order. The PKI's close ties to Sukarno provided it with a degree of protection, but it also made it a target for those who opposed the president's policies. The military, in particular, viewed the PKI with deep suspicion, fearing that it was attempting to subvert the armed forces and establish a communist state. Clashes between PKI supporters and their opponents became increasingly frequent, contributing to a climate of fear and uncertainty. The PKI's involvement in various labor disputes and land conflicts further exacerbated these tensions.

Moreover, the PKI's international connections also raised concerns among anti-communist elements within the government and the military. The party maintained close ties with communist regimes in China and the Soviet Union, receiving financial and ideological support from these countries. This fueled fears that the PKI was part of a global communist conspiracy seeking to spread its influence throughout Southeast Asia. The combination of domestic tensions and international intrigue created a highly volatile situation that ultimately exploded in the aftermath of the September 30th Movement in 1965.

The September 30th Movement and its Aftermath

The events of September 30, 1965, marked a turning point in Indonesian history. A group of mid-level military officers launched a coup attempt, assassinating several high-ranking generals. The motives behind the coup remain a subject of debate, but the PKI was quickly blamed for masterminding the plot. This accusation, whether true or not, provided the pretext for a massive crackdown on the PKI and its supporters. The military, under the leadership of General Suharto, swiftly crushed the coup and launched a nationwide anti-communist purge. What followed was one of the darkest chapters in Indonesian history, with hundreds of thousands of people killed or imprisoned.

The anti-communist purges targeted not only PKI members but also suspected sympathizers, intellectuals, and anyone deemed to be a threat to the new order. The killings were often carried out by vigilante groups, with the tacit support of the military. The scale of the violence was staggering, with estimates of the number of deaths ranging from 500,000 to over a million. The purges had a devastating impact on Indonesian society, traumatizing communities and creating deep divisions that persist to this day. The PKI was outlawed, and its members were systematically persecuted. Many were imprisoned for years, while others were forced into exile.

Suharto and the military seized power, effectively ending Sukarno's rule and ushering in the New Order regime. Sukarno was gradually sidelined and eventually placed under house arrest, where he remained until his death in 1970. The New Order regime was characterized by its authoritarian rule, its suppression of political dissent, and its close ties to the military. The events of 1965 and their aftermath had a profound and lasting impact on Indonesian politics, shaping the country's trajectory for decades to come. The New Order regime used the specter of communism to justify its repressive policies and maintain its grip on power. The legacy of the purges continues to haunt Indonesia, with ongoing debates about justice, reconciliation, and accountability for the atrocities that were committed.

Understanding the political constellations of pre-New Order Indonesia is essential for comprehending the subsequent developments under Suharto's regime and the challenges of democratization that the country has faced since the end of the New Order. The era before 1965 was a period of great promise and great peril, marked by a vibrant multi-party system, ideological clashes, and a series of pivotal events that shaped the nation's destiny. The lessons learned from this period continue to resonate in Indonesian politics today.